Chapter Outlines

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Chapter 1: What is Delinquency and How Does it Differ From Adult Crime?

I. Juvenile delinquency
A.    Violations of criminal law by minors
1.    a minor is anyone under age 18 in most states
2.    a minor is someone under the age of 17 or 16 in some states
B.    View and treat juvenile delinquents differently from adult criminals

II. View of juvenile delinquents
A.    Immature and in need of guidance
1.    idea of immaturity
a.    not knowing act is wrong
b.    not realizing harm act causes
c.    not able to control oneself
2.    idea of guidance
a.    not deserving of serious punishment
b.    should be given help
B.    Delinquent cases illustrate idea
1.    6-year-old girl in Florida who repeatedly hits 7-year-old friend with piece of wood
2.    6-year-old boy in California who beats a month-old baby

III. Treatment of juvenile delinquents
A.    Special laws
1.    status offenses
a.    running away from home
b.    truancy
c.    incorrigibility
d.    drinking alcoholic beverages
e.    violating curfew
f.    engaging in certain consensual sexual activities
2.    used by states to regulate lives of juveniles more closely than adults
3.    criticisms arose in 1960s and early 1970s
a.    laws vague
b.    subject juveniles who have not committed criminal acts to severe penalties
c.    poor, minority, females juveniles more likely to be punished
4.    efforts to address criticisms
a.    divert status offenders from juvenile court and handle informally
b.    reclassify status offenders as CHINS, PINS, etc.
c.    reduce number of status offenders confined in institutions
d.    some states have decriminalized status offenses
B.    Juvenile court differs from adult court
1.    primary goal to guide and help, not to punish
2.    focus on offender rather than offense
3.    more informal and less adversarial
a.    several Supreme Court decisions granted juveniles most due process rights no right to trial by jury
b.    often not represented by attorney
4.    terminology
a.    adjudicated a "delinquent" rather than found guilty
b.    given a disposition instead of a sentence
5.    more privacy
a.    court hearings often closed to public and media
b.    often juvenile court records can be sealed
6.    no death penalty and limits on length of confinement
C.    Special correctional programs for juveniles
1.    protect juveniles from contact with adult offenders
2.    more concerned with rehabilitation than punishment--in theory if not always in practice
D.    Older, serious juvenile offenders an exception
1.    view and treat these offenders similar to adult offenders
2.    cases illustrate this point
a.    13-year-old shoots and kills man in front of his children
b.    15-year-old shoots into a crowd of students at a school
3.    major movement to more severely punish these offenders
a.    increase severity of punishments
b.    make it easier to try these juveniles in adult court

IV. Explaining the invention of juvenile delinquency
A.    Changing conception of children
1.    until past few hundred years children were viewed and treated like adults
2.    beginning in 1500s and 1600s children began to be viewed as different than adults
B.    Reasons for change in perception of children
1.    declining death rate of children
2.    extension of formal education
3.    rapid growth of urban populations creating large slums
a.    variety of problems
b.    concern for children living in area
C.    Explanations for "child-saving movement"
1.    genuine concern of middle-class reformers to help poor children
2.    desire of upper-class people to protect their privileged position in society
3.    both explanations may have merit

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Chapter 2: HOW IS DELINQUENCY MEASURED?

I. Measuring delinquency
A.    Method of measurement impacts conclusions about delinquency
B.    Three major ways to measure
1.    official statistics
2.    self-report data
3.    victimization data

II. Official statistics--primarily arrest data from police compiled by the FBI and reported in Crime in the United States: The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
A.    FBI Crime Reports provide various data on crime
1.    number of crimes known to the police
2.    number of crimes cleared by arrest
3.    number of people arrested and characteristics of those arrested
B.    Clearance and arrest data provide information on extent of delinquency and trends in delinquency
C.    Part I offenses
1.    eight relatively serious violent and property crimes
2.    FBI reports crimes known to police and clearance/arrest data
D.    Part II offenses
1.    twenty additional offenses
2.    FBI only reports arrest data
E.    Advantages of FBI Crime Reports data
1.    represent approximately 95 percent of the population
2.    provide long-term information on trends in crime
3.    provide moderately accurate measures of certain types of serious crime
F.    Problems with FBI Crime Reports data in estimating extent of and trends in delinquency
1.    most delinquent acts do not become known to police
a.    only about one-third of all crime victimizations reported to police
b.    many crimes do not have victims
c.    difficult for police to detect crimes on their own
2.    offenders are usually not caught by police
3.    suspected offenders are often not arrested because police have discretion over whether or not to arrest
4.    police sometimes make mistakes and report inaccurate data to FBI
5.    police sometimes deliberately distort crime data reported to FBI
a.    "unfound" crime reports
b.    reclassify crimes from more to less serious categories
6.    only report most serious offense for which person is arrested
7.    summary
a.    arrest data greatly underestimate extent of delinquency, especially minor delinquency
b.    arrest data may be misleading in estimating trends in delinquency
(1)    reported victimizations may increase over time
(2)    police departments may encourage more arrests
(3)    police reporting may become more accurate

III. Self-report data
A.    Methodology
1.    juveniles asked about extent of their delinquency
2.    usually focus on delinquency committed during previous year
3.    usually anonymous or confidential
B.    Major advantage is that provides estimates of all delinquency committed by juveniles
C.    Truthfulness of juveniles on self-report surveys
1.    researchers use variety of methods to estimate accuracy of self-report data
a.    comparisons with official records
b.    comparisons with peer, family, or school reports
c.    use or threat of lie-detector tests
d.    comparisons with drug tests
e.    comparisons between groups known to differ in their level of delinquency
2.    research suggests data are moderately accurate
a.    juveniles reasonably honest
b.    minor level of under-reporting for serious offenses
D.    Problems with self-report data
1.    difficult to estimate trends because few long-term nationwide surveys
2.    underestimate extent of serious delinquency
a.    respondents sometimes under-report serious delinquent acts
b.    measures often focus on minor offenses and have vague response categories
c.    report trivial acts
d.    under sample most serious delinquents
E.    Progress in overcoming problems
a.    new methods such as "Audio Computer-Assisted Self-Administered Interview"
b.    better measures of delinquency
(1)    accurate counts of number of delinquent acts committed
(2)    focus on both minor and serious offenses
(3)    larger samples of juveniles
c.    effort to eliminate trivial acts from delinquency counts
d.    effort to include serious offenders in sample by over sampling juveniles in neighborhoods that have high delinquency rates

IV. Victimization data
A.    National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) administered by federal government
1.    sample includes people ages 12 and older in approximately 50,000 households throughout the United States
2.    respondents asked if they have been victims of several types of crime
3.    respondents asked to provide information on their victimizations
B.    Advantages
1.    provides information on crimes reported and unreported to police
2.    provides information on experiences and characteristics of crime victims
C.    Problems
1.    focus on only a few types of violent and property crimes committed against persons ages 12 and older
a.    no information on drug use and status offenses
b.    no information on crimes committed against businesses, such as shoplifting
c.    no information on crimes committed against persons under age 12
2.    under sample certain groups with high rates of criminal victimization
3.    crime victims may not report victimizations to interviewers
a.    do not report because embarrassed, do not remember, or offenders are family members or acquaintances
b.    effort to increase reporting includes change in wording of survey
4.    victim does not see offender, especially likely for property crimes

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Chapter 3: HOW MUCH DELINQUENCY IS THERE AND IS DELINQUENCY INCREASING?

I. Extent of juvenile delinquency
A.    Arrest data
1.    approximately 1.6 million juvenile arrests in 2002
a.    about 416,000 arrests for Part I crimes, with larceny theft accounting for over half
b.    about 1.2 million arrests for Part II offenses, with most arrests for "other assaults," disorderly conduct, drug abuse violations, liquor law violations, curfew violations, and running away
c.    greater number of arrests for minor crimes than for serious crimes
2.    juvenile arrest rate
a.    number of juvenile arrests per 100,000 juveniles ages 10-17 in a population
b.    about 6,833 per 100,000 juveniles
(1)    280 violent Part I offenses
(2)    1,468 property Part I offenses
3.    309,000 Part I crimes cleared by arrest of juveniles
B.    Self-report data
1.    2002 Monitoring the Future survey administered to sample of about 2,500 high school seniors
a.    problems
(1)    omits dropouts and students who are suspended or truant
(2)    omits serious offenses like homicide and rape
(3)    employs vague response categories
b.    status offenses and minor forms of delinquency are common
(1)    drinking alcohol
(2)    fighting with parents
(3)    petty theft
(4)    fighting
c.    serious crimes are less frequent, although not uncommon
2.    National Survey of Youth administered to sample of 1,725 adolescents ages 11 through 17
a.    methodology
(1)    sample of adolescents asked about extent of their delinquency in 1976 and same group surveyed several additional times through 1990s
(2)    included status offenses, minor crimes, and serious crimes
(3)    precisely measured number of times each act was committed
(4)    avoided use of vague response categories
b.    extent of delinquency in 2002
(1)    5,200 self-reported of delinquency per 100 juveniles
(2)    33 million juveniles engaged in hundred of millions of delinquent acts
(3)    status offenses and minor crimes are most common
c.    large discrepancy between arrest data and self-report data reveals probability of arrest very low
C.    Victimization data
1.    victimizations experienced by juveniles
a.    23 million in 2002
(1)    violent victimizations: 5.3 million or 2.3 per 100 households
(2)    property victimizations: 17.5 million or 15.9 per 100 households
(3)    property and minor crimes more common than violent and serious crimes
b.    characteristics of those most likely to be victimized by violent crime
(1)    young people
(2)    males, except for rape/sexual assaults
(3)    African American
(4)    people with lower income
2.    victimizations committed by juveniles
a.    rarely see offenders in property crimes, so unable to provide age information
b.    juveniles ages 12 to 17 committed about 413,000 serious violent crimes in 2002
D.    Summary
1.    arrest data provide lowest estimates and self-report data give highest estimates
2.    self-report data probably most accurate estimate
3.    all data sources indicate minor offenses more common than serious offenses and property crimes more common than violent crimes

II. Trends in juvenile delinquency since early 1980s
A.    Arrest rate data for juveniles ages 10 to 17
1.    rate of Part I property crime
a.    fairly stable from early 1980s to 1994
b.    decline since mid 990s
c.    2002 rate at lowest level since 1960s
2.    rate of Part I violent crime
a.    reasonably stable from 1980 to 1988
b.    more than 60 percent increase between 1988 and 1994
c.    declining since 1994
d.    2002 rate comparable
3.    rate of murder
a.    more than doubled between 1987 and 1993
(1)    direct result of gun-related murders
(2)    certain social changes led to increase in gangs
b.    declined sharply since 1994
B.    Self-reported delinquency from Monitoring the Future survey
1.    rate of property crime
a.    generally stable during early to mid-1980s
b.    modest increase during late 1980s
c.    remained at high level through early 2000s
(1)    average rate per 100 seniors from 1987 to 2002 was 188.2
(2)    at odds with arrest data, which show sharp decline in rates since mid 1990s
2.    rate of violent crime
a.    stable during much of 1980s
b.    increased during late 1980s
c.    fluctuated during early and mid 1990s, but remained generally high
d.    modest decrease after 1998
(1)    average rate from 1989 to 1998 was 76.3 acts per 100 seniors
(2)    average rate from 1999 to 2002 was 66.8 acts per 100 seniors
(3)    decrease later and smaller than shown in arrest data
C.    Self-reported drug use
1.    rate of drug use from National Household Survey on Drug Use (renamed National Survey on Drug Use and Health)
a.    declined during 1980s and early 1990s
b.    increased during early to mid 1990s
c.    generally stable since mid 1990s, with slight increase since 1999
2.    other self-report data on drug use
a.    similar trends, although indicate slight decrease in past few years
b.    increase from early to mid 1990s main reason behind federal government's anti-drug ad campaign
D.    Victimization data for juveniles ages 12 to 17 from National Crime Victimization survey
1.    rate of violent crime victimizations committed by juveniles
a.    moderately stable during 1980s
b.    increased during late 1980s to early 1990s
c.    declined dramatically since 1993
2.    rate of juvenile victimization by violent crime
a.    increased substantially in late 1980s and early 1990s
b.    declined dramatically since early 1990s
E.    Summary
1.    property crime
a.    arrest and self-report data disagree
(1)    arrest data show sharp decline since mid 1990s
(2)    self-report data do not show decline
b.    tentatively conclude there has be decline in serious property crime since mid 1990s, but no decline in minor property crime
2.    violent crime
a.    arrest and victimization data indicate rate stable in early to mid 1980s, increased in late 1980s and early 1990s,  and decrease substantially since mid 1990s
b.    self-report data show more modest decrease sine 1998
(1)    conclude that rates of serious violence increased dramatically in late 1980s and early 1990s but then declined sharply
(2)    conclude that rates of less serious violence increased by modest amount during late 1908s and early 1990s and decreased by modest amount in late 1990s
3.    drug crimes
a.    overall rates declined substantially during 1980s and early 1990s
b.    rates increased substantially from 1992 to 1997
c.    rates moderately stable since late 1990s

III. Explaining dramatic decline in serious crime since mid 1990s
A.    Possible factors contributing to decline in juvenile crime rates
1.    decline in crack use and decline in turf disputes between crack dealers
2.    improvements in economy during 1990s
3.    improvements in police practices
4.    increased use of prevention and rehabilitation programs
5.    higher rate of incarceration for juvenile offenders
B.    Continuing decline will depend on such things as trends in economy and extent to which United States makes use of effective crime control strategies

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Chapter 4: WHO IS MOST LIKELY TO ENGAGE IN DELINQUENCY?

I. Relationship between social class and delinquency
A.    Introduction
1.    most people assume lower-class juveniles are more delinquent than middle-class juveniles
2.    large number of studies yields contradictory findings
B.    Early studies based on arrest data were primary measure until 1960s
1.    lower-class communities had higher arrest rates than did higher-class communities
2.    criminologists concluded social class strongly associated with delinquency
C.    Early self-report studies widely used during 1960s
1.    data indicated little or no relationship so criminologists concluded social class unrelated to delinquency
2.    explanations for discrepancy between arrest data and self-report data
a.    lower-class offenses are more likely to come to attention of police and result in arrest
b.    Chambliss' study showed visibility, demeanor, and bias affected perceptions
c.    middle-class and lower-class youth have different reasons for engaging in delinquent acts
D.    Criticisms of early self-report studies
1.    focused on status and minor offenses, and provided little information on serious delinquency
2.    used truncated response categories that failed to accurately measure high-rate offenders
3.    failed to examine very poor juveniles or the length of time that juveniles had been poor
E.    Later self-report studies such as National Youth Survey (NYS)
1.    few or no class differences for most types of minor delinquency
2.    lower-class juveniles are more likely to engage in serious delinquency
3.    more high-rate offenders in lower class
F.    Overall conclusions
1.    no relationship between social class and minor delinquency
2.    social class moderately related to serious delinquency, due to more high-rate offenders in lower class than in working and middle class

II. Relationship between race and delinquency (focus on African Americans and whites)
A.    Arrest data
1.    FBI does not report arrest data on Latinos and non-Latinos
2.    African Americans disproportionately involved in delinquency, with larger differences for serious crimes
a.    race differences declined in recent years
b.    arrest rates for African Americans have been falling faster than those for whites
3.    criticisms
a.    crimes committed by African Americans may be more likely to come to attention of police
b.    African Americans offenders more likely to be arrested than white offenders
B.    Self-report data
1.    early self-report studies find little or no relationship
2.    later self-report studies find more complex relationship, similar to that of social class
a.    African Americans and whites commit similar levels of minor delinquency
b.    African Americans more likely to engage in serious delinquency, but not to extent reported in arrest data
c.    larger percentage of high-rate African Americans offenders than high-rate white offenders
d.    Latinos higher rates than non-Latino whites, but possibly lower rates than African Americans
C.    Victimization data
1.    African Americans more likely than whites to be both offenders and victims of violence
a.    African American juvenile rates of serious violent offending 2.4 times higher than whites
b.    African American juveniles about five times as likely as white juveniles to be victims of homicide
2.    most crime intraracial so higher victimization rates suggest higher offending rates
D.    Overall conclusions
1.    little or no relationship between race and minor delinquency
2.    African Americans more likely than whites to engage in serious delinquency
3.    race differences in serious delinquency declined in recent years
E.    Race and social class in relation to serious delinquency
1.    comparison of delinquency of lower-class African Americans to lower-class whites and of middle-class African Americans to middle-class whites indicates that social class explains some but not all of relationship
2.    remaining differences likely due to community context--African Americans more likely to be poor and to live in high-poverty communities

III. Relationship between age and delinquency
A.    All three data sources show that crimes peak during mid- to late adolescence
1.    rates for property crime peak in mid to late adolescence and then decline rapidly
2.    rates for violent crime peak in late adolescence and early adulthood and then decline more slowly
3.    rates of illicit drug use peak in late teens and early 20s; peak varies somewhat by type of drug
B.    Primary reason for peak is increase in number of juveniles that start committing crimes during adolescence
C.    Different patterns for females and African Americans
1.    female offending, especially violence, peaks slightly earlier
2.    African Americans less likely to stop offending when they become adults

IV. Relationship between gender and delinquency
A.    All data sources show
1.    males have higher rates of delinquency than females
2.    gender differences greatest for serious violent and serious property crimes
3.    reasons for differences
a.    greater number of male offenders than female offenders
b.    male offenders committing more offenses than female offenders
B.    Arrest and self-report data
1.    arrest data
a.    males more likely than females to be arrested for every crime except prostitution and running away
b.    males and females tend to be arrested for same types of crimes
(1)    most often arrested for minor crimes
(2)    greater portion of all male arrests for serious crimes
(3)    greater portion of all female arrests for larceny theft and status offenses
c.    trends in male and female delinquency
(1)    arrest rates increased faster for females from mid 1980s to mid 1990s
(2)    arrest rates declined more slowly for females from mid 1990s to 2002
2.    self-report data
a.    findings in agreement with arrest data
(1)    males have higher rates of delinquency
(2)    even though males commit more serious acts, males and females tend to commit similar types of crimes
b.    contrary to arrest data show gender ratio in delinquency fairly stable since 1960s
C.    Summary of gender differences in delinquency
1.    males have higher rates, especially for serious violent and property crimes
2.    males commit more offenses, but females also commit a broad range of offenses
3.    some evidence that difference becoming smaller

V. Different types of delinquents
A.    Non-offenders, low-rate offenders, and high-rate offenders
1.    small percentage (10 percent or less) of juveniles do not engage in delinquency
2.    large percentage (majority) commit small to moderate number of delinquent offenses
3.    small percentage (5–15 percent) commit an enormous number of offenses
B.    Types of offenses committed by juvenile offenders
1.    small number specialize in a particular type of crime
2.    large majority of juveniles commit range of minor offenses
3.    small percentage commit mixture of minor and serious offenses
C.    Age at which juveniles start and stop delinquent behavior
1.    most common pattern is "adolescent-limited" offenders--start offending in late childhood to mid-adolescence and stop offending in late adolescence
2.    smaller group of "chronic" offenders
a.    often begin delinquent or antisocial behavior as young children
b.    more likely to offend at high rates, commit serious offenses, and continue offending as adults
D.    Common patterns of juvenile offending
1.    tendency to move from less serious to more serious offending
2.    tendency for frequency of offending to increase during early to mid-adolescence and decrease during late adolescence and adulthood
E.    Different types of delinquents
1.    high-rate, serious, chronic offenders that commit enormous amount of crime
2.    low-rate, minor, adolescent-limited offenders
3.    other groups fall in between

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Chapter 5: WHAT IS A THEORY AND HOW DO WE TEST THEORIES?

I. Introduction to theory
A.    Attempt to explain or describe causes of something
B.    Basic parts of a theory
1.    dependent variable--what is to be explained
2.    independent variable--what is believed to be the cause
3.    reasons why independent variable causes dependent variable
4.    conditioning variables--conditions under which independent variable most likely to cause dependent variable
C.    Reasons to study theories of delinquency
1.    help explain why some individuals and groups more likely to engage in delinquency
2.    guide most research on delinquency
3.    can help society better control and prevent delinquency
4.    can help us better understand our own and others' behaviors

II. Guidelines associated with scientific method used to test theories
A.    Carefully define independent and dependent variables
1.    variables precisely defined
2.    definitions seem reasonable
B.    Decide how to gather data
1.    surveys
2.    experiments
3.    field studies
C.    Develop measures of independent and dependent variables
1.    (for surveys) questions should reflect definitions developed for variables
2.    (for surveys) questions should be clearly understood by respondents
D.    Sampling of juveniles
1.    can generalize to population from  representative or random sample
2.    unable to generalize when sample not representative
E.    Analyze data

III. Conditions for assessing causality
A.    Independent variable associated with dependent variable
1.    positive association--high score on independent variable associated with higher level of dependent variable
2.    negative association--high score on independent variable associated with lower level of dependent variable
B.    Association not due to chance
1.    larger samples reduce likelihood of association due to chance
2.    with random sample can statistically estimate probability that association due to chance
C.    Association not due to third variable
1.    third variable may affect both independent variable and dependent variable
2.    research should control for relevant third variables
D.    Independent variable precedes dependent variable in time
1.    longitudinal research used to assess effect of variables across time
2.    effect of variables may be reciprocal

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Chapter 6: STRAIN THEORY: DOES STRAIN OR STRESS CAUSE DELINQUENCY?

I. Introduction to strain theory
A.    Juveniles experience strain, become upset, and sometimes engage in delinquency
B.    Several versions, each describes major types of strain and conditioning variables

II. Two major categories of strain
A.    Failure to achieve goals
1.    money
a.    central goal and necessity that some have difficulty obtaining through legal channels
b.    research provides limited support that monetary strain related to delinquency
2.    status/respect
a.    want to be treated in just and fair manner
b.    threats to manhood or "masculine status" for certain group members
3.    thrilling or exciting activities
a.    sometimes referred to as "sensation seekers"
b.    trouble satisfying this desire through legal channels
4.    autonomy from adults
a.    defined as freedom from control of others
b.    school system especially likely to frustrate autonomy goals
c.    delinquency means of asserting autonomy,  achieving autonomy, or venting frustration
5.    personal goals
B.    Loss of positive stimuli/presentation of negative stimuli
1.    lose something of value
2.    negative treatment
a.    parental rejection
b.    parental supervision/discipline that is very strict, erratic, excessive
c.    child abuse and neglect
d.    abusive peer relations
e.    criminal victimization
f.    homelessness
g.    experiences with prejudice and discrimination

III. Impact of strain on juveniles
A.    Experience negative emotions such as anger and frustration
B.    Cope with strain and negative emotions using one or more strategies
1.    cognitively reinterpret strain so as to minimize its impact
a.    e.g., "it's not that important" or "it's not that bad"
b.    e.g., "I deserve it"
2.    behavioral strategies involve actions that attempt to reduce strain
a.    nondelinquent strategies
(1)    e.g., avoid peers
(2)    e.g., negotiate with teachers
b.    delinquent strategies
(1)    e.g., attack peers
(2)    e.g., threaten teachers
3.    emotional coping strategies attempt to reduce negative emotions resulting from strain
a.    nondelinquent strategies
(1)    e.g. exercise
(2)    e.g. relaxation techniques
b.    delinquent strategies include using illegal drugs
C.    Factors increase likelihood that strain will lead to delinquency
1.    experiences strain in an area of life considered important
2.    poor coping skills and resources
3.    few conventional social supports
4.    costs of delinquent coping are low and the benefits are high
5.    disposed to delinquency
6.    situations where the costs of delinquency are low and benefits are high

IV. Support for strain theory
A.    inability to achieve certain goals and the experience of certain negative events increase likelihood of delinquency
B.    some factors increase likelihood that juveniles will respond to strain with delinquency

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Chapter 7: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: DO INDIVIDUALS LEARN TO BE DELINQUENT FROM OTHERS?

I. Introduction to social learning theory
A.    Juveniles learn to engage in delinquency through association with or exposure to others
B.    Types of associations
1.    primary or intimate groups
2.    interactions with others at school, religious community, neighborhood, and other settings.
3.    indirect contact (e.g., media)
C.    Associating with delinquent others increases likelihood of delinquency
1.    provides support for, but does not prove, social learning theory
2.    to prove social learning theory must demonstrate that juveniles learn to engage in delinquency from delinquent others
D.    mechanisms by which juveniles learn to engage in delinquency from others
1.    others differentially reinforce delinquent behavior
2.    others teach beliefs favorable to delinquency
3.    others provide delinquent models to imitate

II. Differential reinforcement of delinquency
A.    Others reinforced past delinquency and continued reinforcement of delinquency anticipated
B.    Factors of reinforcement
1.    frequency: tend to repeat behaviors that are frequently reinforced and avoid those that are frequently punished
2.    amount: more likely to engage in behaviors with a lot of reinforcement
3.    probability: more likely to engage in behaviors with highest probabilities of reinforcement
4.    "differential reinforcement" means different behaviors have different probabilities of being reinforced
C.    Types of reinforcement and punishment
1.    positive reinforcement: behavior results in something good
2.    negative reinforcement: behavior results in removal of something bad
3.    positive punishment: presentation of something bad
4.    negative punishment: removal of something good
D.    Sources of reinforcement
1.    other people, particularly family members and friends
2.    self-reinforcement and punishment
3.    intrinsic or "nonsocial" reinforcers
E.    Some individuals more likely to be reinforced for delinquency
1.    deliberate and less-deliberate reinforcement
2.    less reinforcement for conventional behaviors
F.    Schedules of reinforcement
1.    continuous
a.    every act is reinforced
b.    rare schedule of reinforcement for delinquency
2.    intermittent
a.    only some acts are reinforced
b.    common schedule of reinforcement for delinquency
c.    usually sufficient to maintain behavior
G.    Discriminative stimuli
1.    juveniles learn to distinguish situations most likely to result in reinforcement
2.    commit delinquency in situations with highest probability of reinforcement
H.    Research on reinforcement and delinquency
1.    experimental studies show strong effect of reinforcement on subsequent aggression
2.    surveys and field studies find reinforcement increases delinquency

III. Beliefs favorable to delinquency
A.    Categories
1.    generally approve of minor delinquency
2.    conditionally approve of delinquency, including some serious delinquency
a.    subculture of violence
b.    excuses and justifications identified by Sykes and Matza
(1)    denial of responsibility
(2)    denial of injury
(3)    denial of victim
(4)    condemnation of the condemners
(5)    appeal to higher loyalties
3.    general values conducive to delinquency
a.    emphasis on excitement, thrills, or kicks
b.    disdain for hard work and desire for quick and easy success
c.    high value on toughness and physical strength
B.    Sources
1.    others (e.g., family members, delinquent friends, community residents,  and media)
2.    self (after engaging in delinquency)

IV. Imitation of delinquent models
A.    Most likely to imitate models under certain conditions
1.    like or respect model
2.    see model receive reinforcement
3.    see model give off signs of pleasure
4.    in environment where imitating model's performance is reinforced
B.    Others may inadvertently model aggressive behavior
C.    Media provides aggressive and violent models to imitate
D.    Studies demonstrate importance of imitation on delinquency
1.    experimental studies
2.    survey studies
3.    field studies

V. Summary of social learning theory
A.    Substantial support for theory
B.    Along with control theory, is leading explanation of delinquency

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Chapter 8: CONTROL THEORY: DO WEAK CONTROLS RESULT IN DELINQUENCY?

I. Introduction to control theory
A.    Explains conformity rather than delinquency
B.    Conform because of controls or restraints
1.    belief that delinquency is wrong
2.    fear of sanctions

II. Why juveniles conform and sometimes deviate
A.    Some individuals high in control
1.    believe delinquency very wrong
2.    believe delinquency would be heavily sanctioned
B.    Some individuals low in control
1.    believe delinquency only a little bit wrong
2.    believe delinquency would not be heavily sanctioned

III. Similarities and differences between control and social learning theories
A.    Both focus on extent to which delinquency is prevented through sanctions
B.    Differences
1.    social learning theory focuses on factors that motivate delinquency
2.    control theory assumes all juveniles naturally motivated toward delinquency

IV. Major types of control
A.    Direct control
1.    efforts of others to control behavior
a.    parents major source
b.    also includes justice system, school officials, neighborhood residents, and others
2.    four components
a.    setting clearly defined rules for juvenile
b.    monitoring behavior
(1)    direct: under direct surveillance of parent or other authority figure
(2)    indirect: parents or other authority figures keep tabs on juvenile
c.    sanctioning rule violations in a consistent, fair, and not overly harsh manner
d.    reinforcing conventional behavior
B.    Stake in conformity
1.    what a juvenile has to lose by engaging in delinquency
2.    emotional attachment to conventional others
a.    delinquency may upset people one cares about
b.    delinquency may cause them to think badly of juvenile
3.    actual or anticipated investment in conventional activities
a.    most juveniles have spent much time and energy in conventional activities
b.    most juveniles have been rewarded and expect future rewards for efforts
c.    most juveniles do not want to jeopardize that investment by engaging in delinquency
C.    Internal control refers to an effort to constrain oneself from delinquency
1.    beliefs regarding delinquency
a.    those low in direct control and with a low stake in conformity less likely to believe delinquency is wrong
b.    juveniles with an amoral orientation toward delinquency do not hold beliefs that restrain them from delinquency
c.    some juveniles not taught that delinquency is bad
2.    ability to exercise self-control
a.    individuals differ in ability to control or restrain themselves
b.    low self-control indexed by several personality traits, such as impulsivity, insensitivity, shortsightedness, etc.
c.    major cause of low self-control is ineffective parenting

V. Summary of control theory
A.    Delinquency most likely when low direct control, low stake in conformity, and low internal control
B.    Data generally support theory

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Chapter 9: LABELING THEORY: DOES THE REACTION TO DELINQUENCY LEAD TO FURTHER DELINQUENCY?

I. Introduction to  labeling theory
A.    Focuses on official and informal reactions to delinquency central ideas
B.    Focuses on impact of this reaction on juveniles
1.    labeled "delinquents" viewed as bad
2.    harsh/rejecting responses increase likelihood of further delinquency
a.    Reduction in control
b.    Increase in strain
c.    Increase in social learning for crime
d.    View themselves as delinquents

II. Five major questions addressed by labeling theorists
A.    Why certain acts are defined as delinquent or status offenses
B.    How others react to delinquency
C.    What impact the reaction to delinquency has on further delinquency
D.    Why some juvenile offenders are more likely than others to experience the "harsh/rejecting" reaction
E.    Whether some juvenile offenders are more likely than others to respond to the harsh/rejecting reaction with further delinquency

III. Reactions to juvenile's delinquency
A.    Harsh/rejecting reaction
1.    essential features
a.    juveniles labeled delinquent
b.    label leads others to view them as bad people
c.    juveniles rejected and treated in harsh manner
2.    reaction of official agencies can have negative effect
3.    informal reactions by parent, teachers and others
a.    parents may become overly strict or reject delinquent children
b.    school personnel may harshly sanction and segregate delinquent children
B.    Failure to respond
1.    reasons for little response
a.    others never find out about delinquency
b.    delinquent behavior ignored or only mildly sanctioned
(1)    does not deserve sanction
(2)    lack of good evidence
(3)    overwhelmed with more serious cases or with behavior
2.    arguments for policy of "radical nonintervention"
a.    most delinquency minor and juveniles "grow out of it"
b.    labeling can make matters worse
3.    recommendations for reducing intervention
a.    police handle cases informally whenever possible
b.    juvenile court officials divert from court whenever possible
c.    place formally processed youth in community-based programs
d.    legalize or decriminalize status and minor delinquent acts
4.    criticisms of "radical nonintervention"
a.    may reduce direct control
b.    may reduce indirect control
C.    Condemnation of delinquent behavior with acceptance of juvenile
1.    essential features
a.    sanction delinquent behavior without being overly harsh
b.    conventional others maintain close ties to juvenile
2.    arguments for this approach
a.    eliminates negative effects of harsh/rejecting reaction and of radical nonintervention
b.    helps develop internal control
3.    restorative justice approach entails conference between offender, victim, family members of both, and community representatives
a.    focus on helping offender appreciate harm caused by act
b.    strategy developed to repair harm caused by act
(1)    apology
(2)    restitution to victim
(3)    community service
c.    once harm repaired, offender forgiven and ties to community restored

IV. Further discussion on relationship between rejecting/harsh reaction and further delinquency
A.    Reduces various forms of control
1.    direct control over juvenile lowered
a.    parents/teachers avoid juvenile
b.    apply harsh methods of discipline
2.    juvenile's stake in conformity reduced
a.    emotional ties weakened with parents/teachers
b.    investment in conventional society weakened
3.    juvenile's internal controls weakened
a.    less likely to condemn delinquency
b.    weakened efforts at self-control
B.    Increases strain for juvenile
1.    more difficult to achieve goals
2.    possible loss of positive stimuli and presentation of negative stimuli
3.    may increase level of irritability and so sensitivity to strains
C.    Increase juvenile's social learning of delinquency
1.    more likely to associate with delinquent others who reinforce delinquency
2.    increases exposure to delinquent models
3.    more likely to develop beliefs and rationalizations favorable to delinquency
D.    Creates delinquent self-concept
1.    self-concept function of how others view and treat us
2.    some juveniles viewed as bad may come to view themselves as bad

V. Factors that affect whether juvenile experience harsh/rejecting reaction
A.    Frequency and/or seriousness of delinquency that becomes known to others
1.    serious offenders often viewed as bad people deserving of harsh sanctions
2.    justice system often harshly punishes these offenders
B.    Socioeconomic characteristics of juvenile
1.    lower-class juveniles (and parents) lack financial resources, connections, reputation, and negotiating skills to negotiate mild treatment
2.    lower-class, certain minority group members, and older juveniles fit stereotype of serious delinquents
C.    Gender differences for types of offense
1.    males perhaps more severely sanctioned for serious offenses
2.    females more harshly sanction for status offenses
D.    Level of control and association with delinquent peers
1.    Juveniles low in control who associate with delinquent peers treated more harshly
a.    fit stereotypes of delinquent
b.    less able to resist efforts of others
c.    lack close ties to conventional others
d.    poor problem solving skills
e.    weak attachment to parents/ teachers
2.    points illustrated with study of "Saints and Roughnecks"

VI. Factors that increase juvenile's response to harsh/rejecting reaction with further delinquency
A.    Low in control
B.    Believe delinquency desirable or justifiable response
C.    High in strain

VII. Evidence on labeling theory
A.    Ideal test would examine three groups of comparable offenders, which each receive a different reaction--harsh/rejecting, failure to respond, or condemnation of behavior with acceptance of juvenile
B.    Most tests compare arrested delinquents to comparable delinquents who have not been arrested
1.    find slightly higher levels of subsequent delinquency for arrested delinquents
2.    problems with this approach
a.    many arrested juveniles do not experience harsh/rejecting reaction
b.    cannot assume nonarrested juveniles do not experience harsh/rejecting reaction
C.    Other tests of labeling theory

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Chapter 10: HOW DO WE EXPLAIN DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF OFFENDING OVER THE LIFE COURSE?

I. Patterns of offending over the life course
A.    Adolescent-limited
B.    Life-course persistent

II. Adolescent limited offending
A.    Most adolescents engage in delinquency
1.    Small to moderate number of minor offenses
2.    High school cliques involve to varying degrees in delinquency
B.    Biological changes associated with adolescence
1.    physical and sexual maturation
2.    increased level of testosterone in males
3.    not fully developed prefrontal cortex
C.    Social changes as transition from childhood to adulthood
1.    more autonomy than children but less than adults
2.    more material resources than children but less than adults
3.    higher status than children but less than adults
4.    more responsibility for behavior
5.    more responsibility for education and career goals
D.    Reduction in control
1.    less direct control from parents and teachers
2.    reduced stake in conformity with parents and teachers
3.    reduction in internal as parental ties weaken and ties to peers strengthen
E.    Increase in social learning for crime
1.    peer associations and loyalties strengthened
2.    association with delinquent peers more likely for adolescents
a.    more freedom and less direct control
b.    more time spent on street and in large, secondary schools
c.    attracted to delinquent peers
F.    Increase in strain
1.    trouble achieving goals like autonomy, money and status
a.    parents limit spending money and restrict freedoms
b.    teachers may treat juveniles in demeaning manner
2.    loss of positive stimuli or presentation of negative stimuli
a.    increase in size of social world
b.    increase in likelihood of negative treatment by others
3.    fewer legal coping skills and resources

III. Life-course persistent offending
A.    4 to 10% of population
1.    start offending at high rates early in live
2.    engage in minor and serious crimes
3.    offending often continues into middle age
B.    Traits conducive to crime
1.    irritable and low in self-control
2.    develop traits early in life
a.    inherited from parents
b.    result of "biological harms"
c.    develop because of poor parenting practices
C.    Poor parenting
1.    causes
a.    parents irritable and low in self-control so more likely to neglect or respond in harsh manner
b.    stressors associated with poverty
c.    children difficult to manage
2.    provide less direct control and have weaker bonds with children
3.    function as deviant models, teach beliefs conducive to crime, and/or reinforce aggressive behaviors
D.    Traits and poor family experience persist over time
1.    biological factors persist over time
2.    consequences contribute to continued existence
E.    Traits and poor parenting lead to variety of problems
1.    lack discipline and skills necessary to perform well at school and work
2.    elicit negative reactions from others and are rejected or treated harshly
3.    reduced control, increased social learning of crime, and increased strain

IV. Summary
A.    Life-course persistent offenders
1.    experience poor parenting and develop traits conducive to delinquency early in life
2.    traits and poor parenting persist over time and lead to additional problems
3.    continue offending into adulthood because offending rooted in ongoing problems that originate during childhood
4.    family, school, and other problems then to be more serious
B.    Limited research suggest traits conducive to crime and poor parenting associated with life-course persistent offending
C.    Changes during adulthood can reduce levels of offending
1.    decent jobs
2.    good marriages
3.    involvement in effective rehabilitation programs

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Chapter 11: IS DELINQUENCY MORE LIKELY IN CERTAIN TYPES OF SITUATIONS?

I. Introduction
A.    Juveniles predisposed to delinquency spent majority of time in nondelinquent activities
B.    Involvement in delinquent activities heavily influenced situational factors
C.    Altering situations may effectively reduce delinquency
D.    Situations conducive to delinquency
1.    juveniles are strained or provoked
2.    alcohol and drugs are used
3.    costs of delinquency are seen as low
4.    benefits of delinquency are seen as high

II. Situational Strains
A.    Provocation by others, especially males attacking other males with verbal or physical attacks that are perceived as deliberate
1.    strains
a.    presentation of negative stimuli
b.    threats to one's status
2.    increase likelihood for violent response
3.    many offenders not innocent victims of provocations by others
a.    offender may mistreat others and elicit negative reaction
b.    usually series of verbal exchanges where offender demand victim apologize
c.    if victim refuses, often verbal exchange escalates into violence
B.    Other situational strains
1.    desperate need for money
2.    threats to autonomy
3.    loss of positive stimuli
C.    Efforts to reduce crime by reducing situational strains
1.    staggering bar closing house so people enter streets at different times
2.    separating rival soccer fans and reducing waiting time before and after games

III. Social learning and control theory suggest crime most likely in situations where benefits of delinquency seen as high and costs seen as low
A.    Benefits
1.    tangible (e.g., money or property)
2.    intangible (e.g., social approval from others or  thrills and excitement)
B.    Costs
1.    likelihood of being caught and punished
2.    guilt or bad feelings
C.    Juveniles calculation of benefits and costs
1.    most not rational in sense that they consider all the benefits and costs in a particular situation
2.    most give limited though to benefits and costs in given situation
a.    do not engage in delinquency act in presence of parents or police
b.    attach smaller or weaker targets
c.    degree of consideration varies
D.    Situational features that influence calculation of benefits and costs
1.    attractive targets
a.    property
(1)    visible and accessible
(2)    valuable
(3)    easy to move
(4)    unlikely to provoke guilt if stolen
b.    person
(1)    visible and accessible
(2)    though to posses valuable items
(3)    unlikely to offer effective resistance
(4)    unlikely to provoke guilt if attacked
c.    efforts to make targets less attractive
(1)    reducing value of targets
(2)    target hardening techniques
(3)    increase ability of targets to offers effective resistance
(4)    increase moral costs of committing crimes
2.    absence of capable guardians or individuals who might interfere with crime
a.    examples include police, teachers, and neighbors
b.    efforts to increase presence of capable guardians
(1)    additional staffing of convenience stores
(2)    locating cashier in middle of store rather than to the side
(3)    locate store in areas where other businesses are open during evenings
3.    presence of delinquent peers
a.    reduce costs of delinquency
b.    increase anticipated benefits of delinquency

IV. Summary of situational features that increase the likelihood of a delinquent response
A.    Intensified sensitivity to strain
B.    Reduced perceptions of costs of delinquency
C.    Increased perceptions of benefits of delinquency
D.    Use of alcohol and drugs
1.    reduce ability to engage in legal coping
2.    reduce awareness of and concern with costs of delinquency
E.    Presence of attractive targets
F.    Absence of capable guardian
G.    Presence of delinquent peers

V. Factors that increase likelihood for predisposed offenders to encounter situations conducive to delinquency
A.    Actively seek out situations conducive to delinquency
1.    search for homes to burglarize or individuals to rob
2.    search in convenient and familiar areas
3.    select targets near homes and places frequently traveled
B.    Encounter situations conducive to delinquency during routine activities
1.    unstructured, unsupervised activities with delinquent peers
a.    unstructured activities include hanging out, going to parties, and riding around in cars
b.    unsupervised activities are when no capable guardians are present
2.    time of day
a.    on school days violence most often occurs during hours immediately following end of school
b.    on nonschool days violence most often occurs between 8 and 10 P.M.
3.    places or locations
a.    public setting more than private settings
b.    settings that bring youth together in absence of capable guardians
C.    Factors influencing routine activities
1.    age and sex
a.    adolescents most likely age-group to engage in unstructured, unsupervised activities
b.    males more likely than females to engage in unstructured, unsupervised activities
2.    social and technological changes
a.    increases in parental work, single-parent families, and multi-car households have decreased parental supervision
b.    increases in lightweight, valuable products like DVD players and computers

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Chapter 12: HOW CAN WE EXPLAIN GROUP DIFFERENCES IN DELINQUENCY, PARTICULARLY COMMUNITY DIFFERENCES IN RATES OF DELINQUENCY?

I. Introduction
A.    Focus on communities rather than individuals
B.    Provide model to explain group differences in delinquency rates

II. Community characteristics and delinquency
A.    Crime rates higher in some communities
B.    Characteristics of high-crime communities
1.    economic deprivation
2.    residential instability in that people frequently move in and out of community
3.    family disruption
4.    high percentage of African-American and/or Latino residents
a.    association between race/ethnicity and community crime rates due to third variables like economic deprivation, residential instability, and family disruption
b.    poor African-Americans more likely than poor whites to live in such communities

III. Prevalence of high-poverty communities
A.    Increase in numbers of such communities and people living in them from 1970 to 1990
1.    migration of working and middle class African-Americans to more affluent communities
2.    government housing policies placed public housing projects in poor inner city communities
3.    major changes in economy
a.    decline in low-skill jobs paying a decent wage
(1)    manufacturing jobs moved to suburban areas or oversees
(2)    wages in manufacturing jobs become less competitive
b.    increase in low-skill service sector jobs
B.    24% decrease in numbers of such communities and people living in them from 1990 to 2000
1.    strong economy during 1990s
2.    federal housing policies encouraged replacement of public housing projects with mixed-income housing
3.    concern as to whether this trend will continue

IV. Reasons why deprived communities are higher in crime
A.    Attract or select crime-prone individuals
B.    Characteristics of community cause individuals to engage in crime
1.    higher in strain
a.    goal blockage
(1)    less access to jobs, especially well-paying jobs
(2)    less able to achieve social status, especially "masculine status"
b.    lost of positive stimuli/presentation of negative stimuli
(1)    family disruption
(2)    school problems
(3)    criminal victimization and child abuse
c.    fewer legitimate coping resources and increased anger
2.    lower in control
a.    less effective direct control
b.    less likely to provide juveniles with stake in conformity
c.    less likely to socialize juveniles to condemn delinquency and exercise self control
d.    reasons for less control
(1)    trouble finding decent work so lack skills and resources necessary to assist others in community
(2)    less likely to have close ties to neighbors and community
(3)    less likely to support or form community organizations
3.    foster social learning of crime
a.    delinquent groups more likely to form
b.    develop beliefs favorable to delinquency

V. Community crime rates
A.    Dependent variable: economic deprivation, residential instability, and family disruption increase crime rates
B.    Independent variable: increase in crime rates affects other factors
1.    businesses and residents move out of communities
2.    property values fall
3.    poorer individuals move into community
4.    reduction in control, increase in social learning for crime and increase in strain
C.    Reciprocal relationship between crime rates and community characteristics

VI. Overview of leading theories of delinquency
A.    Each theory presents different image of delinquent
1.    strain theory--angry and frustrated because of problems or stains and unable to cope through legal channels
2.    social learning theory--believes delinquency desirable or justifiable response to particular situation
3.    control theory--unrestrained
4.    labeling theory--branded as "bad," rejected and mistreated by conventional others
B.    Combination of theories provides more complete explanation of delinquency

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Chapter 13: INDIVIDUAL TRAITS: WHAT IMPACT DO THEY HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?

I. Introduction to individual traits
A.    Relatively stable ways of perceiving, thinking about, and behaving toward the environment and oneself
B.    Certain traits increase likelihood of delinquency
C.    Clusters of related traits called "super-traits"
1.    low self-control comprised of several specific traits
2.    date over how many super-traits and the composition of these traits

II. Individual traits that increase likelihood for delinquency
A.    Low verbal IQ
1.    individuals have trouble expressing themselves, remembering information, and thinking abstractly
2.    explaining how low verbal IQ increases likelihood for delinquency
a.    strain theory
(1)    increases strain by making it more difficult to achieve goals and by increasing likelihood of negative relationships with others
(2)    decreases likelihood for coping through legitimate channels
b.    social learning theory: reduces likelihood of reinforcement for conventional behavior
c.    control theory
(1)    leads to poor school performance, thus weakening one's stake in conformity
(2)    reduces ability to foresee consequences of offending and to exercise self-control
B.    Low self-control
1.    consists of several specific traits
a.    impulsivity,
(1)    tendency to act without considering consequences of one's behavior
(2)    strong preference for immediate versus delayed rewards
b.    risk-seeking
c.    hyperactivity
d.    low ambition, motivation, or perseverance
e.    amoral beliefs or beliefs favorable to delinquency
2.    effect on delinquency
a.    strain theory
(1)    trouble achieving goals through legitimate channels
(2)    likely to upset others
(3)    likely to respond to strain with delinquency
b.    social learning
(1)    attracted to rewards associated with crime since these rewards typically immediate
(2)    find crime rewarding in and of itself since crime typically involves risky behavior
(3)    likely to view crime favorably
c.    control theory
(1)    less constrained by direct controls and stake in conformity
(2)    less thought given to consequences
(3)    less constrained by beliefs
d.    labeling theory
(1)    more likely to be labeled and treated as "bad" and rejected by conventional others
(2)    labeling and rejection increases strain, reduces control, fosters social learning of crime
C.    Irritability
1.    consists of several specific traits
a.    heightened sensitivity to stressors or strains
b.    tendency to attribute problems to malicious behavior of others
c.    self-centered, little concern for rights and feelings of others
d.    aggressive/antagonistic interactional style
2.    effect on delinquency using
a.    strain theory
(1)    provoke negative reactions from others
(2)    more sensitive to strains
(3)    more inclined to cope to strain with delinquency
b.    social learning theory
(1)    rejected by conventional others and associate with delinquent peers
(2)    find crime more rewarding
c.    control theory
(1)    less responsive to direct controls
(2)    less likely to condemn crime
d.    labeling
(1)    more likely to be viewed and treated as "bad" people
(2)    produces negative effects described above

III. Explaining why individuals differ in traits
A.    Biological factors
1.    genetic inheritance and biological harm
a.    create predisposition for crime by influencing likelihood individuals will develop traits conducive to crime
b.    influence development of such traits through effect on central nervous system and autonomic nervous system
2.    genetic inheritance of crime
a.    twin and adoption studies suggest genetic link to crime
b.    cautions to consider
(1)    extent to which crime inherited may vary by type of crime and by type of offender
(2)    influential role in explanation of high-rate, chronic delinquency
(3)    genetic factors only partly responsible
(4)    delinquency most likely when individual has both genetic predisposition for crime and lives in environment conducive to crime
3.    biological harm and crime
a.    caused by variety of factors
(1)    mother's poor health habits during pregnancy and/or delivery complications
(2)    exposure to toxic substances and/or poor diet
(3)    head injury
b.    research problems
(1)    failure to control for relevant third variables
(2)    failure to conduct longitudinal studies
c.    certain types of biological harm contribute to some crime
4.    central and autonomic nervous systems
a.    dysfunctions in frontal lobe of the brain
b.    dysfunctions in left hemisphere of brain
c.    under arousal of autonomic nervous system
d.    reduced levels of serotonin
5.    dysfunctions of central and autonomic nervous systems may lead to crime
a.    increase likelihood that individual will develop traits conducive to crime
b.    evidence of genetic effect on many traits linked to crime
c.    evidence of biological harm influencing traits linked to crime
B.    Environmental factors
1.    individual traits also function of social environment, particularly family environment and social class
a.    early family environment
b.    social class
2.    difficult to separate effects of environmental and biological factors in precise manner
a.    social environment can contribute to biological harm
b.    biological factors can affect social environment
c.    environmental and biological factors may condition effect of one another on traits conducive to crime

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Chapter 14: THE FAMILY: WHAT IMPACT DOES THE FAMILY HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?

I. Introduction to family and delinquency
A.    All major delinquency theories argue family influences whether juveniles engage in delinquency
1.    level of and reaction to strain
2.    learns to conform or deviate
3.    control to which subjected
4.    extent to which labeled
B.    Research on family and delinquency focused on four major aspects of family
1.    family structure--size and composition of family
2.    parental and sibling deviance--extent to which parents and siblings engage in crime and deviant behavior
3.    quality of family relationships--emotional ties between family members and how well they get along with each other
4.    parental socialization--extent to which parents teach their children to conform or deviate

II. Family structure
A.    Broken homes argued by many to be major cause of delinquency
1.    broken homes cause delinquency for a number of reasons
a.    juveniles are under strain due to conflict associated with breakup and other problems that follow breakup
b.    juveniles are subject to less control because breakup disrupts emotional bonds and supervision
c.    juveniles have less exposure to conventional role models
d.    juveniles more likely to be labeled delinquent
2.    large percentage of juveniles now live in broken homes and are likely to suffer range of problems
3.    data on broken homes and delinquency are mixed
a.    some studies find no difference between those from broken and intact homes
b.    other studies, particularly those based on official data, find those from broken homes more likely to engage in delinquency
4.    conclude from overall data that broken homes have small to moderate effect on delinquency
5.    homes broken by divorce/separation have stronger association with delinquency
6.    broken homes versus quality of family relationships
a.    effects of broken homes less than effects of behavior/attitudes of family
b.    broken homes with good relationships less likely to result in delinquency than intact homes with bad relationships
B.    Mother's employment outside the home has little or no effect on delinquency
C.    Placing juveniles in child-care facilities may contribute to a modest increase in aggression and problem behavior in some children
1.    morning-to-afternoon increase in cortisol indicating children experience strain
2.    learn aggressive behaviors from others
3.    subject to less direct control, weaker bonds to parents, and slower to develop internal control
D.    Teenage parents
1.    teenage motherhood has moderate effect on delinquency
a.    teenage mothers more likely to have larger families, be single parents, live in poverty, and obtain welfare or public assistance
b.    children of teenage mothers more likely experience factors conducive to delinquency
(1)    e.g., premature birth and low birth weight
(2)    e.g., physical abuse, neglect, or abandonment
(3)    e.g., trouble in school
2.    Teenage fatherhood
a.    delinquents more likely to become teenage fathers than nondelinquents
b.    likely that teenage fathers increase likelihood of delinquency
E.    Large family size has small effect on delinquency
1.    less parental supervision
2.    more strain
3.    exposure to delinquent peers

III. Parental and sibling crime/deviance
A.    Parental crime/deviance increases likelihood of delinquency
1.    may model aggressive behaviors and encourage children to be tough
2.    less likely to establish strong emotional bonds with children
3.    more likely to engage in abusive behaviors and get into conflicts with other family members
4.    children more likely to be viewed and treated as "bad"
5.    may pass on genetic traits conducive to delinquency
B.    Sibling crime/deviance increases likelihood for delinquency
1.    siblings exposed to similar family influences
2.    delinquent siblings socialize one another by providing models, reinforcements, and teaching beliefs conducive to delinquency

IV. Quality of family relationships
A.    Parental affection for or rejection of children
1.    delinquency lower when parents express their love for their children
a.    talk with them
b.    express an interest in them
c.    provide them with comfort and support
2.    delinquency much more likely when parents reject or ignore their children
a.    parental rejection one of strongest family correlates of delinquency
b.    parents are unlikely to earn children's love or effectively socialize them
B.    Attachment of juvenile to parent
1.    delinquency lower when children have strong emotional bond or attachment to parents
a.    attachment functions as form of control
b.    reduced likelihood juveniles will fall under influence of delinquent peers
c.    less likely to find home a stressful place
2.    delinquency higher when children have weak attachment to parents
C.    Family conflict
1.    delinquency lower in families with little conflict
a.    includes conflict between spouses and between parents and juveniles
b.    forms of conflict include quarreling, expressions of disapproval, nagging, scolding, and threatening
2.    family conflict is more likely to produce delinquency
a.    weakens emotional bonds between parents and children
b.    disrupts efforts to socialize children
c.    exposes children to aggressive models and beliefs
d.    increases likelihood of association with delinquent peers
e.    increases level of strain experienced by children
D.    Child abuse
1.    early studies had number of methodological problems and may have exaggerated effect of abuse on delinquency
2.    more recent studies suggest that abuse increases likelihood of delinquency by a moderate amount
3.    most abused children do not become serious delinquents
 
V. Parental socialization
A.    Teaching children not to engage in delinquency
1.    provide clear rules for behavior that specify what behaviors are unacceptable
2.    directly/indirectly monitor children's behavior to ensure compliance with rules
3.    consistently sanction children for rule violations
a.    sanctions should not be too harsh or punitive
b.    recommended sanctions include imposition of chores, clear expressions of disapproval, reasoning, and time out
4.    employ effective problem-solving techniques for resolving problems
a.    clearly state problem in neutral terms
b.    other person paraphrases problem
c.    brainstorm list of solutions
d.    choose solution through process of negotiation
e.    develop contract that describes terms of the agreement
B.    Family disciplinary styles that increase likelihood of delinquency
1.    supervision and discipline are lax
2.    parents frequently punish or threaten punishment, but ineffectively and inconsistently punish
a.    negative pattern of interaction develops between family members
b.    reduces emotional bonds and levels of control, while increasing strain and anger
C.    Teaching children to engage in conventional behavior
1.    parents teach children intellectual, cognitive, and behavioral skills
a.    provide direct instruction in these skills
b.    model these skills
c.    provide opportunities for children to practice these skills
d.    reinforce children when they successfully employ these skills
2.    parents provide emotional, informational, and instrumental support when children face problems that they cannot handle

VI. Reviewing the impact of family on delinquency
A.    Important family variables are parental rejection of the child and parental efforts to socialize the child against delinquency
B.    Delinquency least likely when quality of family relationships is good and parents attempt to socialize children against delinquency
1.    referred to as "warm and authoritative" or "warm and firm"
2.    parents have warm relationship with children and have clear rules they enforce
C.    Delinquency most common when parents are "warm and lax" or "cold and lax"
D.    Family variables more important during childhood and early adolescence
E.    Some parents employ poor parenting practices
1.    lack traits for effective parenting
2.    lack knowledge
3.    have difficult children
4.    experience strains or stressors

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Chapter 15: THE SCHOOL: WHAT IMPACT DOES THE SCHOOL HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?

I. School experiences and delinquency
A.    School experiences associated with delinquency   
1.    low academic performance
2.    little school involvement
3.    low attachment to school
4.    poor relations with teachers
5.    low educational/occupational goals
6.    dropping out of school
7.    school misbehavior
B.    Explaining association between school experiences and delinquency
1.    both school experiences and delinquency caused by same third variable
2.    delinquency may cause negative school experiences
3.    school experiences have modest causal effect on delinquency

II. Why some juveniles have negative school experiences
A.    Individual traits like low intelligence and low self-control
B.    Family factors like family size, parental criminality, parental rejection, and poor discipline
C.    Associating with delinquent peers and gang members
D.    Misbehavior and delinquency
E.    Background factors including social class, sex, race/ethnicity, residential mobility, and type of community
F.    Type of school child attends

III. School characteristics and delinquency
A.    Amount of delinquency occurring at school
1.    serious violence relatively rare
2.    less serious forms of violence more common
3.    theft more common than violence
4.    most forms declining since early to mid 1990s
5.    bullying is extensive
a.    three dimensions of bullying
(1)    behavior designed to harm or disturb others
(2)    occurs on a repeated basis
(3)    involves a more powerful person or group attacking a less powerful one
b.    victims of bullying suffer range of negative psychological and social consequences
B.    School differences in rates of delinquency
1.    rates higher in schools that have higher percentage of less able, poor, male, and members of minority-group students
2.    rates higher in schools located in urban communities with high rates of crime, poverty, unemployment, and female-headed households
3.    school characteristics have small to modest association with rates of within-school delinquency.
C.    School characteristics that reduce within-school delinquency
1.    small, with good resources
a.    average teacher instructs smaller number of different students
b.    teachers are provided with needed materials and equipment
2.    good discipline
a.    clear rules that are consistently reinforced
b.    not overly punitive
3.    provide opportunities for student success and praise students for accomplishments
4.    high expectations for students
5.    pleasant working conditions for students
a.    teachers have positive attitudes toward and show concern for students
b.    teachers create pleasant physical space for students to work
6.    good cooperation between the administration and teachers
a.    administrators and counselors keep teacher informed of disciplinary problems
b.    administrators and counselors assist teachers in their disciplinary efforts
7.    strong community involvement
D.    Effects of these school characteristics on delinquency
1.    create less strain
2.    subject students to greater control
3.    more likely to punish delinquent and reinforce conformity
4.    provide less exposure to delinquent others
5.    less likely to label students as "bad"

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CHAPTER 16: DELINQUENT PEERS AND GANGS: WHAT IMPACT DO DELINQUENT PEER GROUPS AND GANGS HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?

I. Impact of delinquent peers on delinquency
A.    Delinquent friends typically strongest correlate of delinquency
1.    association due to several causal effects
a.    delinquent peers on delinquency
b.    third variables
c.    delinquency on delinquent peers
2.    Elliott and Menard's study shows common pattern of progression
a.    juveniles associate with mildly delinquent peers before engaging in delinquency
b.    association with mildly delinquent peers leads to minor delinquency
c.    minor delinquency leads to association with more delinquent peers
d.    association with more delinquent peers leads to more serious delinquency
3.    delinquent peers and delinquent acts reciprocally related to one another
B.    Conditional effects of adolescent's friends that strengthen impact of delinquent peers on delinquency
1.    all friends are delinquent
2.    friends form cohesive group
3.    adolescent likes friends and spends a lot of time with them
4.    friends hold beliefs conducive to delinquency, approve of adolescent's delinquency, and pressure adolescent to engage in delinquency
5.    effects explained by social learning theory
C.    Delinquent peer groups
1.    types of delinquency
a.    most commit minor delinquent acts on an occasional basis
b.    some commit more frequent and serious delinquent acts
2.    size and composition
a.    offending groups are groups that actually commit delinquent acts
(1)    typical size is two to four juveniles
(2)    usually commit offenses with different members of larger groups
b.    accomplice networks are pool of potential co-offenders
(1)    average size is about seven juveniles
(2)    delinquent youths have larger networks
3.    group members typically similar in age and sex
a.    most are male
b.    peak at ages 15 to 18
c.    females more likely to be part of mixed-sex groups
4.    instigators and followers
a.    instigators are same age or a little older than other group members
b.    females are more likely to follow male instigators than males are to follow female instigators
c.    juvenile may be instigator with one set of friends and follower with another group of friends
5.    quality of relations between group members
a.    similar to those found in conventional peer groups
b.    more likely to repost getting into conflicts with one another
D.    Explaining the effect of delinquent peer groups on delinquency
1.    social learning theory
a.    reinforce delinquency
b.    provide delinquent models
c.    foster beliefs conducive to delinquency
2.    control theory
a.    reduce fear of direct controls
b.    reduce stake in conformity, and
c.    reduce level of internal control
3.    strain theory
a.    experience more conflict with one another and with others in community
b.    more difficult to achieve certain goals through legitimate channels
4.    labeled as delinquent
E.    Reasons juveniles get involved with delinquent peer groups
1.    individual traits of irritability and low self-control
a.    increase likelihood of rejection by conventional peer groups
b.    strong need for thrill and excitement more attracted to activities of delinquent groups
2.    family variables that promote delinquency increase likelihood of association with delinquent peer groups
3.    negative school experiences increase likelihood of association with delinquent peer groups
4.    living in deprived, inner-city communities increases likelihood of becoming involved with delinquent peers
5.    delinquent behavior itself increases likelihood of association with delinquent peers
a.    prefer delinquent peers
b.    rejected by conventional peers

II. Gangs
A.    Differ greatly from one another
1.    some are large, highly organized, and heavily involved in drug sales
2.    others small, loosely organized, and have little or no involvement in drug sales
B.    Various definitions of a street gang
1.    Klein defines a gang as an "identifiable group of youngsters" with certain characteristics
a.    perceived as a distinct aggregation by others in the neighborhood
b.    recognize themselves as a distinct group
c.    involved in a sufficient number of delinquent acts to elicit negative responses from residents and/or law enforcement officials
2.    alternative definitions
a.    protect territories or turfs
b.    formal organizational structures
C.    Extent of gangs in the United States
1.    National Youth Gang Center survey
a.    gangs present in all cities with populations of 250,000 or more, most cities with populations of 50,000 to 250,000, and many smaller areas
b.    24,500 gangs with 772,500 gang members in 2000
2.    self report studies of urban youth
a.    5 to 15 percent of adolescents belong to gangs in a given year
b.    8 to 30 percent belong to gangs at some point during adolescence
3.    dramatic increase in gangs from the 1970s to the mid 1990s
a.    increase in number of gangs, gang members, and cities with gang problems
b.    number of gang members increased from 55,000 in 1975 to almost 850,000 in mid 1990s
4.    gang activity declined from 1996 to 2001, especially in smaller areas

III. Effect of gangs on crime and delinquency
A.    Gang members commit substantial share of all delinquency in certain cities
1.    disproportionate involvement in serious and violent delinquency
2.    lethal violence more likely among gang members
a.    more than half of all homicides in Los Angeles and Chicago in 2001 were gang related
b.    gang members more likely to own, carry, and use guns
B.    Dispelling myths associated with gang crime
1.    gang members do not spend most of their time engaged in crime
2.    street gangs do not control drug sales in the United States
3.    victims of gangs are infrequently innocent bystanders
4.    street gangs are not all alike
a.    social gangs
b.    party gangs
c.    serious delinquent gangs
d.    organization gangs
C.    Explaining the causal relationship between gang membership and delinquency
1.    delinquent individuals are more likely to join gangs
2.    gang membership and delinquency are caused by many of same third variables
3.    gang membership causes delinquency--individuals increase delinquency after joining gangs and decrease delinquency upon leaving gangs

IV. Describing gang members and gang structure
A.    Characteristics of gang members
1.    poor and live in lower-income, urban communities
2.    predominantly male
3.    young--average age between 17 and 20
4.    belong to minority groups
B.    Gang organization and structure
1.    some are highly organized, with a well-defined structure
2.    most are loosely organized
a.    distinction between core members and fringe members
b.    divided into informal cliques or subgroups
c.    few well-defined goals or rules
d.    membership changes frequently over time
e.    often bound together through conflict with external groups, rather than through internal cohesion
C.    Female gangs
1.    three types
a.    mixed sex
b.    female gangs affiliated with male gangs
c.    impendent female gangs
2.    female members
a.    exercise good deal of control over their own affairs
b.    members engage in wide range of delinquent acts
c.    less delinquent than male members
3.    reasons for joining gangs
a.    similar to reasons males join gangs
b.    problems with special relevance to female gang members
(1)    experience problems like abuse at home
(2)    seek partial escape from gender oppression they encounter or anticipate encountering in the future
D.    Joining and leaving gangs
1.    reasons for joining gangs
a.    socialize with friends, have fun, and receive support and companionship
b.    desire for positive identity and status
c.    security or protection from others
d.    financial gain
2.    initiation ceremony when decide to join
3.    most gang members leave within a year
a.    witness death or injury of a friend
b.    direct victim of violence
c.    sent to a correctional institution
d.    get a job, have children, or get married
e.    gang itself breaks up
f.    mature out with age
E.    Theoretical explanations for joining gangs
1.    way to cope with strain
a.    cannot acquire enough money or gain status/respect through legitimate means
b.    neglected or abused by family members
c.    harassed by others in school or community
d.    find their lives dull and boring
2.    conditioning variables that increase likelihood for juveniles to join gangs
a.    friends are gang members
b.    live in communities where gang members are respected and reinforced for gang membership
c.    low in direct control and have low stake in conformity
F.    Explaining why gangs often develop in deprived, inner-city communities
1.    lower in control
a.    few community resources
b.    high rates of residential mobility
2.    experience much strain
a.    trouble achieved monetary and status goals through legitimate channels
b.    juveniles often treated in negative manner by others
3.    conflict with others triggering factor that turns juveniles into gangs
4.    juveniles may form gangs in response to media portrayals of gang life
G.    Explaining trends in gang activity
1.    increases since the 1970s
a.    dramatic increase in number of high-poverty neighborhoods and the number of people living in such neighborhoods
(1)    loss of manufacturing jobs, movement of middle and working-class African Americans from inner-city to suburban areas, and concentration of public housing in inner-city communities
(2)    such areas more likely to develop gangs
b.    spread to working-class and middle-class communities
(1)    change in economy created uncertain economic future
(2)    large population increases reduce levels of control and contributed to conflict between youth groups
c.    increase in youth violence from late 1980s to mid 1990s
d.    media and manufacturers provide gang models to imitate
2.    explaining stabilization and decline in gangs from the mid 1990s to 2001
a.    strong economy
b.    decline in high-poverty communities
c.    decline in youth violence
3.    gang activity increased somewhat from 2001 to 2002 perhaps due to downturn in the economy in early 2000s

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Chapter 17: WHAT EFFECT DOES RELIGION, WORK, THE MASS MEDIA, DRUGS, AND GUNS HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?

I. Religion and delinquency
A.    Explaining why religion might reduce delinquency
1.    increase external and internal controls, stake in conformity, and internal control
2.    increase exposure to conventional models, teach conventional beliefs, and reinforce conformity
3.    reduce strain and provide social support
4.    reduce likelihood of being labeled delinquent
B.    Empirical data indicate religion slightly reduces delinquency
1.    especially for "victimless crimes" like alcohol and marijuana use
2.    part of association due to third variables, including low self-control, parental attachment, and parental supervision
3.    effect partly indirect through peers associations
C.    Why religion affects victimless crimes for than serious crimes
1.    serious crimes condemned by both religious and nonreligious individuals and groups
2.    victimless crimes more strongly by religious groups
D.    Fundamentalist and conservative religious groups commit fewer victimless crime

II. Work and delinquency
A.    Explaining why work might reduce delinquency
1.    reduce monetary strain
2.    increase control and provide stake in conformity
3.    reduce social learning of crime
4.    often reduces crime among adults
B.    Empirical data indicate work slightly increases delinquency
1.    relationship strongest for drug/alcohol use and minor delinquency
2.    association found when adolescents work long hours in menial jobs
C.    Explanations for association between work and increased likelihood for delinquency
1.    increases strain
a.    often poor working conditions with long hours
b.    work demands are combined with family, school, and social demands
2.    more likely to have money for drugs/alcohol
3.    reduces certain forms of control
a.    stake in conformity because less time spent with family members and devoted to schoolwork
b.    direct control because less time spent with parents and adolescents less dependent on parents for money
c.    much work time unsupervised by adults
4.    foster social learning of crime
a.    work source of delinquent friends
b.    more time spent with delinquent friends

III. Mass media and delinquency
A.    TV/movie violence
1.    hundreds of studies examine effect on juvenile violence
a.    experiments examine whether groups exposed to media violence engage in more subsequent violence than do groups not exposed to media violence
b.    real world studies attempt to take account of relevant third variables and issues of causal order
2.    data indicate a small to modest effect on juvenile violence
3.    conditions under which TV violence is most